1. The Origins: A Sadducean Renaissance?

To understand the emergence of Karaism in the 8th century CE, it is inevitable to look back at the turbulent period of the Second Temple. Many historians have labeled Karaism as a “neo-Sadduceeism,” but this relationship is more of a methodological heritage than an exact replica.

The DNA of “Sola Scriptura”:

The strongest connection lies in the absolute rejection of the Oral Torah. Much like the ancient Sadducees, the Karaites broke away from the authority of traditions added by the Sages (Pharisees in antiquity, Rabbis in the Middle Ages), maintaining that only what is written is binding.

However, a fundamental evolution exists between the two groups:

• The Sadducees: Traditionally associated with an observance centered almost exclusively on the Torah of Moses (Pentateuco), granting the Prophets a secondary or purely historical value.

• The Karaites: They took a step further by embracing the 24 books of the Tanakh as an organic body. For them, the rest of the Scriptures (Prophets and Writings) are not only inspired word but the essential philological tool for deciphering the Hebrew of the Torah.

From Politics to Textual Analysis:

While Sadduceeism was a priestly and political elite linked to the Temple, Karaism was born in the Diaspora as a movement of scholarship and grammar. No longer living in an era where Hebrew was the everyday language of the street, the Karaites used the entire Tanakh as a “divine dictionary.” If a law in Leviticus appeared ambiguous, they sought linguistic analogies in the Psalms or Isaiah to extract its technical meaning.

This transition allowed the spirit of resistance against the Rabbinic monopoly to survive. It was not simply a matter of “disbelieving” in the Talmud, but of proposing that truth resides in personal investigation (itju) and in the rigorous analysis of the syntax and morphology of every word revealed in the 24 sacred books.

A “Qumran-style” Missing Link:

It is fascinating to note that the Karaite “renaissance” may have been fueled by the discovery of ancient manuscripts. Authors like Al-Qirqisani suggest that dissident groups found scrolls in caves (possibly related to the Essenes or Sadducean sectors of Qumran) that reinforced their vision of a Judaism based strictly on the text, far from the interpretations accumulated over centuries of oral tradition.

2. An Orthodox Worldview.

It is a common mistake to think of Karaism as a “watered-down” version of Judaism. On the contrary, its rigor is often greater than that of Rabbinic Judaism. Despite their rejection of the Talmud, Karaites maintain a worldview very similar to the Rabbinic one in its fundamentals:

• Absolute ethical monotheism.

• The centrality of Shabbat and purity laws.

• The Messianic hope.

The difference lies in the source of authority. While Rabbinic Judaism views the Talmud as the “instruction manual” necessary to understand the Torah, Karaism applies the principle of itju (investigation): every individual has the responsibility to study the original text. As Anan ben David himself said: “Search well in the Scripture and do not rely on my opinion.”

3. The Great Point of Friction.

The divergence between Karaism and Rabbinic Judaism is not merely theoretical; it manifests in a daily praxis that alters the rhythm of time, the posture of the body before the Divine, and the cycle of celebrations. By rejecting the “fence around the Torah” built by the Sages of the Talmud, the Karaites maintain customs that appear almost unrecognizable to the modern observer.

Calendar and Observation:

The most evident fracture occurs in the calendar. While Rabbinic Judaism is governed by a fixed mathematical calculation system (established by Hillel II in the 4th century), Karaites insist on physical evidence:

• The New Moon (Rosh Chodesh): The month only begins when the first sliver of the moon is visible to the naked eye from the land of Israel. They do not accept prior astronomical calculations if there are no witnesses to the lunar appearance.

• The Aviv (The Barley): The Torah commands the celebration of Passover in the month of “ripened barley.” Therefore, Karaites annually inspect the fields in Israel. If the barley has not reached the state of Aviv, a leap month is added to the calendar, regardless of what the mathematical tables dictate.

This frequently causes Karaite festivals to fall on different days or even months than those of the rest of the Jewish world.

The Liturgy:

Karaite tefillah (prayer) is an echo of Temple times and differs drastically from standard Rabbinic liturgy:

• Full Prostration: Unlike Rabbinic synagogues, where one prays sitting or standing, Karaites pray on their knees and perform full prostration (Hishtajavayah), touching the ground with their foreheads. Their synagogues are usually covered with carpets, and they are entered without shoes to maintain the sanctity of the space.

• Twice a Day: Based on the daily sacrifices described in the Tanakh (the Tamid of the morning and afternoon), Karaites establish two mandatory prayer times, unlike the three prayers (Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma’ariv) of the Rabbinic system.

• Psalms and Scripture Only: Their liturgy avoids medieval hymns or the compositions of the Sages, focusing almost exclusively on biblical verses and Psalms.

Identity and Traditions:

Karaism is also distinguished by what it does not do, eliminating traditions they consider human inventions without a basis in the Tanakh:

• Use of the Kippah: For a Karaite, covering the head is a sign of respect or a cultural custom (minhag), but not a legal obligation. They do not consider the biblical text to require the permanent use of the kippah, so many only cover themselves during prayer or study.

• Post-Biblical Holidays: Karaism does not celebrate holidays that are not explicitly commanded in the Torah of Moses. Therefore, they do not celebrate Hanukkah (which commemorates events from the Maccabean period) nor do they consider Purim a mandatory religious holiday with a Megillah reading in the synagogue, though they recognize the historicity of the Book of Esther.

• Interpretation of Tefillin: While Rabbinic Judaism interprets “bind them as a sign on your hand” literally (using leather boxes), Karaites understand it as a metaphor for carrying the commandments in the heart and mind at all times; thus, they do not use physical phylacteries.

This rigour in literal interpretation makes Karaite life paradoxically simpler in its requirements for religious “objects,” yet much more demanding in the direct observation of nature and the pure text.

4. The Golden Age of Karaism.

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, Karaism experienced its “Golden Age.” Thanks to their emphasis on grammar and philology, Karaite scholars were pioneers in the scientific study of Hebrew. Their influence was so vast that it is estimated they came to represent nearly 40% of the world’s Jewish population.

Centers such as Jerusalem, Cairo, and later Crimea and Lithuania, teemed with debates between “Rabbanites” and “Karaites.” It was precisely this intellectual pressure that forced Rabbinic leaders like Saadia Gaon to refine Jewish philosophy and the defense of the Talmud to prevent Karaism from becoming the dominant current.

5. Karaism Today.

After centuries of persecution and a numerical decline following World War II, the center of gravity for Karaism shifted from Egypt to Israel, although many communities are still found in the Diaspora.

Today, approximately 30,000 to 40,000 Karaites live in Israel, concentrated mainly in cities such as Ramla (where their Great Synagogue and administrative center are located), Ashdod, and Beer Sheva.

• Legal Status: They are recognized as Jews by the State of Israel (under the Law of Return), but they maintain their own religious court for matters of marriage and divorce.

• Preservation: They struggle to keep their liturgical language and unique culinary and religious traditions alive, integrating into modern Israeli society without renouncing their identity as the last guardians of the pure text.

Karaism reminds us that Judaism has never been a monolithic block, but a constant—and sometimes fierce—dialogue between the written letter and the voice of tradition.

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar

1. The Historical Controversy: Who Fixed the Calendar?

Traditional narrative attributes the creation of the calculated calendar to Hillel II (4th century). Nevertheless, contemporary experts, such as Dr. Rachel Elior of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, argue that this system was not fully consolidated until the 10th century with Hayyim Gaon.

It is striking that the Talmud contains no clear record of this reform by Hillel II. On the contrary, the Talmud meticulously describes how the Sanhedrin received eyewitnesses of the new moon (Rosh Chodesh) to declare the beginning of the month. The current rabbinic calendar—based on a 19-year cycle with fixed intercalary months (3, 6, 8, 11, etc.)—ignores fundamental biblical variables such as the ripening of the barley (Aviv).

2. The Problem of Authority and Semikhah

For the believer in the Messiah, the underlying question is not merely technical, but one of authority: Who constituted these rabbis as “judges” over Israel to alter the appointed times (Moadim)? The principle of authority in the Torah requires judges to have a direct chain of transmission from Moses, known as Semikhah. However, rabbinic Judaism itself admits that this chain was broken following the Roman persecutions and the destruction of the Second Temple.

Rabbinic Acknowledgment (Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot Sanhedrin 4:11):

“It appears to me that if all the wise men in the Land of Israel were to agree to appoint judges and grant them Semikhah, they would have Semikhah… However, the original chain of Semikhah that began with Moses our teacher was interrupted… and today we do not possess judges with original Semikhah.”

Analysis of Interrupted Authority:

• Generations without Semikhah: The Talmud (Sanhedrin 13b-14a) details the desperate efforts of Rabbi Yehuda ben Baba to preserve Semikhah under Hadrian’s persecution but acknowledges that the structure of the Sanhedrin as a court with biblical authority expired. Subsequent rabbis called themselves “sages,” but they lost the capacity to legislate changes affecting Torah commandments permanently.

• The Paradox of Halakhah d’Rabanan: While the implementation of rabbinic laws serves an organizational function, Halakhah establishes that a law of the sages cannot invalidate a law of the Torah (Devarim). The calendar, being an explicit commandment to determine the Feasts of the Eternal, enters into direct conflict when based on human calculations that ignore biblical observation.

• The Authority of the Messiah as Aleph-Tav: For us, this historical interruption confirms the need for a higher authority. While modern Hebrew roots often “demote” the Messiah to a mere rabbi, we recognize that His authority as the Aleph-Tav changes the entire legal landscape. He not only confirmed the first-century calendar but possesses the inherent authority to restore what men, by necessity or error, altered.

3. The Jewish Perspective: A “Temporary” Change

We must understand, without an inquisitive spirit, why rabbinic Judaism made these changes. In the absence of the Temple and the impossibility of convening the Sanhedrin in the Land of Israel to receive witnesses, the calculated calendar was the only option to maintain unity in the Diaspora.

The fascinating part is that Jewish thought itself admits these changes are transitory. They are not considered a “new revelation,” but an emergency measure meant to be revoked.

Acknowledgment of Transience (Maimonides, Sefer HaMitzvot, Positive Commandment 153):

“This [fixing the calendar by calculation] is a law that we only practice in the Diaspora due to the destruction of the Temple and the absence of a Sanhedrin in the Land of Israel… But when the Messiah comes and the Temple is rebuilt, we will necessarily return to the system of direct observation and the testimony of witnesses, for that is the eternal law of the Torah.”

Analysis of the Expected Restoration:

• The Messiah as Restorer: From a rabbinic perspective, this “necessary change” has no eternal repercussion; they expect that when the Messiah comes, He will “fix” these details and put the original calendar into practice. In other words, even traditional Judaism believes the Messiah will restore the calendar!

• The Paradox of the Follower of Yeshua: Here lies our greatest certainty: if the Messiah has already come (Yeshua) and He already confirmed the observation calendar of the first century, why should we follow a calendar that is supposed to be “temporary” until He arrives?

• Return to the Land: The rabbinic calendar was designed to survive in dispersion. However, for those of us reached by the Messiah’s redemption and returning to the roots of the faith, the logical path is to live under the restored calendar He already validated, anticipating the fullness of the Kingdom.

4. Epiphanius’ Testimony and the 4th-Century Context

Epiphanius of Salamis is often cited to validate the current rabbinic calendar, but an analysis of the original text reveals that Epiphanius was describing a crisis of unity, not an established norm. He refers to the calendar of the first-century Pharisees, which—according to his testimony—the Jews of his time were beginning to lose.

The Quote from Epiphanius (Panarion 70.10.2):

“The apostles decreed nothing regarding this [the day of Passover], but said: ‘We do not care when you celebrate it, as long as you do not commit errors.’ But when the Jews were in a state of disorder and had lost the correct reckoning, the apostles said: ‘Even if they err, do not worry… celebrate it when they do.'”

Technical Analysis of the Text:

• Apostolic Rule vs. Innovation: Epiphanius mentions a prior “apostolic rule.” If the text he cites existed, it predates the Hillel II reform. Therefore, the apostles referred to the observation calendar of the Second Temple, not the mathematical system that emerged centuries later.

• The Roman Church and Nicaea: Epiphanius openly admits that the Roman Church, which he represented, changed this rule after the Council of Nicaea to separate from Jewish practice. As researchers, we understand this Roman change lacks biblical basis, as does the subsequent rabbinic shift.

• The “Jewish Disorder”: The phrase “when the Jews… had lost the correct reckoning” is key. It confirms that in the 4th century, the system was in crisis. This indicates the calendar change began as an emergency measure in the academies of Sura and Pumbedita and was exported through the Diaspora until being fixed in the era of the Geonim.

Conclusion

When reading Epiphanius in context, it is clear that the modern calculated calendar is not what he is defending; he is documenting how the 4th-century Jewish world was losing the precision of the Messiah’s original calendar. If we are followers of Messiah (Mashiach), our compass should not be the “disorder” of the 4th century, but the originality of the first century that the Messiah Himself validated with His presence and fulfillment of the Feasts.

It is important to persevere in excellence, yet we must not “drown in a glass of water” over these legal debates. As believers, our justification rests upon the redemptive work of the Messiah. However, if we seek the originality of our faith, it is most logical to follow the model our Master accepted and confirmed.

The modern rabbinic calendar was a human solution for a people in exile without a Temple or Messiah. But for those who have found the Messiah, the restoration has already begun. By seeking biblical observation, we are not inventing something new; we are returning to what the Eternal entrusted to His people from the beginning and what Yeshua, the Final Authority, validated with His life.

“Then God said, ‘Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and seasons (Moadim), and for days and years.'” — Genesis 1:14

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar

THE FATE OF THE ANUSIM

As we have seen, the Arab period of Al-Andalus was very prosperous for Muslims, Christians, and Jews. However, several factors worked against Christianity at that time, including Catholic celibacy.

Both imams and rabbis led normal lives and could procreate, whereas Christian priests had to live monastic lives and could not marry or have children. Although wisdom and ministerial preparation are not inherited in any of the three religions, both imams and rabbis could exert more influence through a social life closer to the people, and even more so on their children and relatives.

This, along with a well-designed and effective educational system, produced a large, well-prepared Jewish group that socially influenced much more than Catholic Christianity. In reality, Christian influence was more through fear. Although Jews were never the ruling class, they were always very useful to both Catholic and Muslim powers due to their success in areas such as commerce, science, and administration. This might seem positive, but it also created a vassal image of the Jews. So, whenever an attack on the ruling power was desired, it was done through attacks on the Jews.

With the increasing loss of Muslim control over Spanish territories, a growing Christian onslaught against the Jews began to appear. Mistreatment, looting, manipulation, and even massacres, such as the one in Seville on June 6, 1391, where over 10,000 were killed, were the hallmarks of this assault.

Faced with such a difficult situation, which Jewish communities had not experienced since their arrival in Spain, the solution found by many families was conversion to the Catholic faith. This began what is known as the “unofficial forced conversion.” Despite its “unofficial” status, it was widespread. This, along with bloody attacks, led to the simultaneous disappearance of several Jewish quarters (juderías) in different cities.

With the final defeat of the Muslim empire, the Islamic population density almost completely declined, adding more fuel to the tension between Catholicism and the only remaining “enemies” in the area: the Jews. Although many had converted to save themselves, and others were genuinely attracted to Christianity, they never thought they would also have to abandon their Jewish customs, which was non-negotiable for Catholicism, considering anything else heretical. So, in 1482, the Inquisition was established to eradicate all vestiges of any culture other than Catholic Spanish.

If someone had never eaten pork, just as Westerners do not eat dogs, they now had to start eating it, especially publicly at festivals. The same applied to circumcision, which they had to abandon; prayers could not be in the Jewish style even if done in Jesus’ name; the Sabbath had to be forgotten; names had to be mostly New Testament names like Peter, Paul, or John; they could no longer read the Bible in Hebrew but had to listen to it in Latin at cathedrals, even if they did not understand it.

This situation led to Judaism being completely erased from the minds of those families forced to convert (the anusim). Many believed it would be a short time and that everything would return to normal, but the reality was that within a few generations, there was nothing left of their historical memory. Today, those of us who know a little more about Jewish culture can see many vestiges of some customs impossible to eradicate from any culture, but with no conscious connection to that family ancestry.

For example, boiling milk in a separate container from any other, claiming that milk corrupts; the custom of knocking on wood to prevent things from going wrong; some songs that only changed part of their lyrics, like the one about Uncle Perico’s wedding; kissing a piece of bread and throwing it away before eating the rest; washing hands before eating not only for hygiene but as if it were an offense to the rest of the diners, and many others.

A large number of these anusim moved to the New World, to countries like Cuba, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, and others. However, almost none of them escaped the fear produced by the Inquisition, which also moved to the new region. So, there were no returns of these anusim to their cultural roots until the early 20th century, with the arrival of Sephardim and Ashkenazim in America, and under a new context of modernity in which many began to analyze their ancestors’ non-Catholic history.

In another article, we will address the topic of the Sephardim, those who decided to leave Spain and renounce everything rather than abandon their Judaism.

Final.

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar

JUDAISM IN SEPHARAD

After the death of Muhammad, there were military conflicts among those who, as brothers, listened to the teachings of the “prophet,” as some considered themselves more “his followers” than others, a characteristic that has defined this sect to this day. There were two well-defined groups: Sunnis (who base their authority on Muslim consensus) and Shiites (who believe in divinely appointed succession through the lineage of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad’s cousin and Fatima’s husband, Muhammad’s daughter). Since this division is primarily a matter of power, each of these groups has also suffered its own internal divisions from the beginning.

While the Jewish diaspora from Spain was developing, as we saw in the previous article, the Abbasid Sunni caliphate dominated from Turkey to Israel. This caliphate was quite hostile to the Jews in the area, leading to a large migration to the region stretching from Alexandria, through Morocco, to Spain itself (Al-Andalus), which was dominated by another Sunni caliphate known as the Umayyads.

The latter managed to dominate a predominantly Christian and Jewish region in a very wise, balanced, and open manner, allowing each group to live in freedom and interact with others in a respectful and enriching way. Hence, it was in Al-Andalus, including its capital Córdoba, that the well-known Islamic art flourished. This was thanks to the interaction of three groups that made up society: the majority Christians with their Cathedral of Saint Mary Mother of God at the center, the Jews with their Talmudic Yeshiva of Lucena, and the Muslims with their Mosque of Córdoba.

This period between 726 and 1492 was so good for the Jews that, for example, one of the Umayyad generals, Samuel Hanagid, who also became the vizier of Granada and a prolific writer, was Jewish. Other Jewish intellectuals also appeared during this period, covering branches such as literature, medicine, mathematics, and architecture among others: Yosef ben Abitur, Isaac ben Baruch Albalia, Isaac Alfasi, Hiyya al-Daudi, Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra, Moses ibn Ezra, Ibn Gabirol, Yehudah Halevi, Yonah Ibn Janah, Isaac ibn Ghayyat, Yekutiel ben Isaac, Jelf ben Jelf, Dunash ben Labrat, Ibn Paquda, Solomon ben Reuben Bonafed, Menahem ben Saruq, Isaac ibn Said, Moses ben Maimon, and many more.

Unlike Catholic Christianity, which distanced itself from science because it contradicted many of its doctrines, Judaism always complemented science. This not only allowed it to develop but also made it more popular and necessary for a developing society. However, once Catholicism, through Kings Isabella and Ferdinand (Castile and Aragon), reconquered all of Spain by 1492, their radicalism, which did not allow them to properly deal with Jewish and Muslim influence, opted for the total elimination of these cultures from their society.

The plan was drastic under the powerful decree of the inquisitorial courts. First, the Jews and ten years later the Muslims had to convert to Catholicism or simply face death by burning or hanging if they did not leave Spain. Among the Jews, many converted with the hope that the situation would soon change and they could return to Judaism (which is permissible under rabbinic interpretation as long as life is at stake), while others left for new lands with the idea of returning at some point and that the situation would change. It is said, and there is historical evidence, that many families left with the keys to their homes hoping to return, as they could not take much from their more than ten centuries of Jewish presence in Spain.

The propaganda and rejection orchestrated by the Inquisition and Christian preachers to achieve this “Catholic cleansing” is one of the reasons why the Middle Ages had such a stigmatizing and negative focus not only towards Judaism but also towards the Jewish ethnicity itself, giving strength and developing the anti-Semitism that preceded the Lutheran Reformation and has persisted to this day.

Those who converted to Catholicism are known as the anusim (conversos), while those who managed to leave came to be called Sephardim. Why this name Sephardic? It is due to the interpretation of Obadiah 1:20, which identifies Sepharad with Spain.

In future articles, we will discuss these two groups: the Sephardic anusim and the Sephardim who expanded in new diasporas around the world.

To be continued…

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar.

THE BEGINNING OF THE SEPHARDIM

We are now going to discuss the Sephardim not because they are less important than the Ashkenazim, but because they are less complicated yet more significant. This latter point, largely unknown today due to the majority extermination by the Nazi Holocaust, which has silenced them in our contemporary history. To delve into this diaspora, we must begin with the destruction of Jerusalem to gain a better understanding of their historical trajectory and why it is so important and distinct.

The situation for Jews after 70 AD was very different from the captivity imposed by Babylon when King Nebuchadnezzar, as there was no expulsion of them from Judea, Galilee, and its surrounding areas. Instead, due to various pressures from the ruling kingdoms, they were compelled to move away, and over time, there was a dwindling Jewish presence in the region. Though, to be precise, there always remained a Jewish presence there. Generally, the movement of the different diasporas was predominantly within the area stretching from the East, from present-day Turkey to the Persian Gulf, and southward to Alexandria. They did reach farther regions such as India, Morocco, Lithuania, and Spain, but the region of Syria and Iraq was the most prosperous and thriving.

After 135 AD, those who remained in the newly termed region Palestine by Rome, led by the rabbis known as the Tannaim, began to write down what they considered most important from their Pharisaic oral tradition. This was necessary due to the absence of the temple and the need to update their Pharisaism to this new reality. This compilation of writings covering the Second Temple period (536 BC to 70 AD) was called the Mishnayot (repeated teachings). By the 3rd century AD, this collection of writings was so extensive and used that there was a need to compile them, a task undertaken by Rabbi Judah the Prince, into the work known as the Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud).

Parallel to this Jerusalem Talmud, another legal writing known as the Tosefta (supplement or addition) was formed by Judah’s disciples. For years, it was considered inferior to the Jerusalem Talmud due to its almost identical order, language, and concepts. However, over time, it was understood that it was truly a parallel work, originating from the same ancient source as the Mishnayot, representing a similar foundational thought. Therefore, shortly thereafter, both were compiled into a single work that complemented each other.

Over the next two centuries, the rabbis known as the Amoraim, with the arrival of these traditions from Roman Palestine to the diaspora in present-day Iraq, mainly to Babylonia, worked on this Jerusalem Talmud to clarify and expand upon it. These clarifications and expansions were called Gemara (study), because they applied the unique Jewish study methodology of debate known as Havruta (partnership) to these additions. Thus, this Jerusalem Talmud, also known as Mishnah, written in Hebrew, with its Babylonian Gemara written in Aramaic, along with the Tosefta, would form the Babylonian Talmud (Babli). This compilation of the Pharisaic oral tradition played a very important role in the formation and rapid cohesion of communities that now had to grow and survive exclusively as diasporas. Today, we might find many flaws in this Talmud and even view it as a vehicle that has favored the hardening of Israel, but it is impossible not to recognize that through it, God has maintained the nation of Israel with such a clear identity that it makes the revelation of the Messiah more possible today.

Without digressing into the preciousness of continuing with the Talmud, we reach the 7th century, when Islam emerged in that same region among historically idolatrous Arab tribes. With its bloody expansion and imposition of its worldview over the Byzantine Christian Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), the options for Jews and Christians living in the area were twofold: to stay and be subjected to humiliation as part of the new Sharia law (which does not allow conversion for these groups), or to escape to lands where Muslims had not yet arrived. Some left, but others chose to stay and continue developing, even if they had to endure daily humiliation. It was under this second social category that many Jews arrived in Spain accompanying the Umayyad Muslim caliphate troops, serving as servants, merchants, doctors, etc., integrating into existing communities that had come from centuries before. From Arab writers of the time, we know that some cities in Spain were already mostly Jewish before the Muslim arrival (Lucena, Granada, Barcelona, Toledo, and Tarragona), which is why the apostle Paul in the 1st century wanted to visit them (Romans 15:24, 28). And it is to the entire Iberian Peninsula that rabbis in subsequent centuries will identify as biblical Sepharad (Obadiah 1:20).

By the end of the 8th century, a period when Muslims were developing and expanding, the Jewish communities of the cities of Sura and Pumbedita in present-day Iraq, led by rabbis known as the Geonim, established two very important Yeshivot (schools or seminaries). From these institutions, four rabbis were sent to raise funds from Mediterranean communities to assist young people with their weddings. On their journey, they were kidnapped by pirates who demanded a high ransom. Since the sum was very large, only three communities could afford the ransom: Alexandria (where one was sent), Tunisia (where another was sent), and Córdoba (where two, father and son, were sent). In these places where they settled, the three main Talmudic centers of the Mediterranean arose. It was in Córdoba that the intellectual development of the Spanish communities began, transforming and enriching much of the Jewish heritage to this day.

To be continued…

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar.

THE ASHKENAZIM

Although I want to focus more on contemporary history, it’s good to start by saying that between the 11th and 15th centuries, major rabbinic schools (yeshivot) developed in the area of Spain (known today as Sepharad) and the Eastern European region (known as Ashkenaz). Although the former is older of the two, which I will address separately in another writing, Ashkenazi identity and definition became very clear, with their own language (Yiddish: Judeo-German), religious traditions and rituals (minhagim), and even a distinctive culinary art.

I take this opportunity to clarify that recent DNA studies connect this group with various communities in the Mesopotamian East, which dismisses the theory that this group descends exclusively from the Indo-European people known as the Khazars (whose history of conversion to Judaism has fascinated several writers and especially theorists of antisemitic conspiracies, although this is far from historically demonstrable).

These Ashkenazi schools expanded over time to areas such as Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Austria, Hungary, and others in the same region. As a consequence of the global impact of the Renaissance and to some extent the Lutheran Reformation on the Ashkenazi world, a reformist movement also emerged among them, aiming to update many of the customs that had marked this diaspora until then, focusing uniquely or giving singular importance to social ethics. For them, the authority of Scripture was not so much divine as it was of the people of Israel themselves, so if this was more the word of the people than of God, they could distinguish between cultural customs of Israel and its ethical social values.

As a reaction to this reformist movement, another movement emerged that sought to preserve everything as it had been received up to that point, including that new Ashkenazi culture that had developed from the dynamics between Judaism and European culture, and this was called Orthodox. Both movements grew and began to decide the daily life of Jews throughout the Ashkenazi world.

Once emigration to the USA began as a result of persecutions (as narrated in the famous movie “Fiddler on the Roof”), another group emerged in the new diaspora that did not want to live so separated from Judeo-European customs, but also did not want to live in Orthodox extremism since they were in other lands, and they called themselves Conservatives (Masorti).

Now, within the Orthodox movement specifically, another interesting phenomenon occurred, and that is that many different groups emerged within it without abandoning rabbinic orthodoxy: Modern Orthodox Jews, for example, wear a knitted kippah (head covering) that can be of various colors and live a socially modern life (jobs, studies, political life, etc.). However, there were also Haredi or ultra-Orthodox Jews who are more exclusivist and try to distance themselves completely from anything that might have a “gentile” influence, although they are unable to distinguish that most of their customs are from the gentiles and from the medieval era of their Eastern Europe. These are distinguished from Modern Orthodox Jews by their clothing, which consists solely of black and white, with a black kippah and fox fur hats.

These Haredi Jews are further divided into two general groups: those coming from the Lithuanian school and the Hasidic Jews. These two are very similar, and their differences are very subtle details (for example, Lithuanians place their sidelocks (peyot) behind their ears and can shave their beards, while Hasidic Jews leave their sidelocks longer in front of their ears and cannot shave). If we take a magnifying glass and look within these two Haredi groups, we will see that within each one there are also others, such as within Hasidism where we find groups like Chabad Lubavitch, Satmar, Bovod, Pupa, Breslov, Karliner, etc.

So, when we hear about all these names today: reformists, conservatives, Orthodox, Hasidic, reconstructionists, and whatever names we can’t imagine, all of this happens only within the community that comes from the Ashkenazi diaspora. Other diasporas are considered Orthodox by them, but those groups would never call or classify themselves as such; they simply call themselves Sephardic, Mizrahi, Romaniote, and Greek, among whom such fragmentation has never existed.

To be continued…

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar

A General Overview

A few days ago, someone wrote to me asking to explain the differences between the various Jewish groups, although we have several articles on this Blog that discuss this (here), the topic is so complex that questions always remain. So, I take this opportunity to talk a little about the subject, which will always help to understand the current context of the people of Israel. Sadly, the majority’s idea of this is influenced by antisemitism or an idealized vision thereof. Moreover, many speak about prophetic themes concerning Israel without having the slightest idea of Israel’s current reality, often saying completely irrelevant things.

Firstly, we must understand that the modern era (from 1789 to the present) began with a clear distinction between different Jewish groups, which did not have a territorial state to live as a nation. Until that moment and even before Christ (though fully from 135 AD), Jews adapted to living in each place they arrived as part of the diaspora, in order to fulfill those laws given by God outside the promised land. These diaspora groups developed over the centuries with different characteristics that still distinguish them today:

• Sephardim (who remained very small in Spain, but after the expulsion of 1492, they arrived in Northern and Eastern Europe, North Africa, Turkey, and the Americas).
• Ashkenazim (who settled in Eastern Europe, and upon the expulsion of Sephardim from Spain, maintained their differences with them).
• Mizrahim (who managed to stay in the promised land and received those who could return over the centuries).
• Yemenite Jews (although considered Mizrahi by many, this is the diaspora that settled mainly in Arab territories, primarily Yemen).
• Karaites (Jews who from approximately the 7th century reject rabbinic teachings embodied in the Talmud, primarily in the region of Iraq, but today they are found in many places inside and outside of Israel).

There are still other minorities, but ultimately they can be grouped within these groups.

After the massacres carried out by Hitler (known as the Holocaust), 90% of the crimes were against Sephardic diasporas, which completely changed the demographics of the diasporas. Therefore, today the majority group is Ashkenazi, and their customs seem to identify the entire world Jewish population (inside and outside Israel), when in reality it is a unique and special way that identifies only that group.

Until today, diasporas outside of Israel remain the majority (approximately 8 million) compared to those already in Israel (approximately 7 million, with a majority being Ashkenazi). This does not account for the millions who, simply due to the vicissitudes of being in the diaspora over the centuries, have lost their identity (the so-called anusim).

Today, the state of Israel through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and encouraged by the general rabbinate, promotes a series of studies that include genealogies and DNA to help those interested in these last groups to start a process of return to their identity. This happens because in their most popular religious belief, the Messiah will come when Israel in its majority has returned to its faith, which includes the anusim. Politically, this is also advantageous because the more people identify with Israel, the more support they will have in a world and especially among antisemitic neighbors.

To be continued…

Author: Dr. Liber Aguiar

Unfortunately, whether due to the influence of Hellenism or the spiritual blindness that existed in Israel, several sects appeared by the 1st century: the Essenes, the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and the Zealots, each with their own peculiarities and differing opinions regarding the Messiah and his coming. Many expected Him to deliver them from their enemies, others expected Him to demonstrate the character and power of the God of Israel, and still others awaited a Messiah capable of leading a rebellion against the Romans.

However, there were also aspects they were not expecting, such as a liberator who would shame and infuriate a large number of their religious leaders, or who would show them how badly they misunderstood their God and how misdirected their attitudes towards moral law were.

In many ways, the people who saw Jesus witnessed what their nation should have been expecting in the Messiah. Throughout antiquity, many prophets spoke clearly to the people about God’s salvation, his character, and his power; and the Jesus that the people saw demonstrated that truth and power in such an irrefutable way that they marveled at what he did and said. What they saw and heard should have made them think about what they should expect from their Messiah.

So, if Jesus showed them what they were looking for, why did they not recognize him? Was it because he told them he could not deliver them from Rome’s imperial oppression? Was it because he said he had to suffer and die for their sins? Or was it truly due to their blindness as a nation on such an important issue? The people of Israel had received enough information to be prepared for the Messiah’s arrival. Why did they not see Jesus’ messiahship clearly?

The problem was not simply one of perspective but of presuppositions. The reality was that there were prejudices in Jewish thought that limited their vision. Clearly, this problem had a significant impact on the ability of 1st-century religious leaders to recognize Jesus as their Messiah. Despite the teachings of Moses and the prophets, they had added an oral tradition to what the Scriptures actually said. Many of these additions to the law seemed, at first glance, to honor the Scriptures, but often the changes focused more on external aspects than on the spiritual formation of the heart in light of the spirit of the law.

The result was that Israel’s religious leaders found ways to excuse their own mistaken motives by focusing more on ritual than on the spiritual. Many gradually assumed they could be right with God on their own terms and by their own efforts.

When Christ came as the spiritual rescuer, they did not see the need for any kind of personal rescue. In fact, they were not seeking personal forgiveness from God or mercy for their widespread wrongdoing. They wanted a Messiah who would confirm and enforce the rules they mistakenly thought were divinely inspired. As a result, when Jesus presented the vision of God, it did not fit their expectations, and the leaders of the time concluded that he was not the authentic Messiah they were waiting for. Jesus presented a vision of the Father that was not what the Scriptures taught the Israelites to expect, and yet what they saw surprised them. It was a perspective that continually baffled the people because Jesus not only revealed the character and power of God but also revealed to the Jews the heart of God. He came to provide the perfect balance between grace and truth to a generation that mistakenly thought it could reinvent truth and manipulate God’s grace.

Author: Julio Hernández

On the occasion of the edict expelling the Jews from Spain by the Catholic Monarchs Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, Isaac Abravanel (Isaac ben Judah Abravanel), royal treasurer and personal advisor to Isabel, writes this letter that clearly illustrates what was happening, which the kings, in their fanaticism and personal interests, did not perceive. On one hand, the coexistence between both religions, and on the other, the voluntary conversion of many Jews to Christ.

“Your Majesties,

Abraham Senior and I appreciate this opportunity to make our final expression in words, conveying the voice of the Jewish communities we represent to you, counts, dukes, and marquises of the courts, knights, ladies—it is a great honor when a Jew is called upon to assist in the welfare and security of his people, but it is a greater misfortune when the King and Queen of Catalonia-Aragon and Castile, and of course of all Spains, seek their own glory in innocent people such as the Jews.

I find it very difficult to understand how all Jewish men, women, and children can be a threat to the Catholic faith. Tell us, how do we destroy your faith? Quite the opposite, isn’t it? Are you not admitting in this edict to confine all Jews to restricted places with so many limitations on our royal, legal, and social privileges, not to mention forcing us to endure humiliating disturbances? Were the oppressions imposed not enough, were we not already terrorized by your diabolical Inquisition? Let me make this statement: I will not let the voice of Israel be silenced on this day. Hear, O heavens. And may King and Queen of the Spains listen to me, Isaac Abarbanel, addressing You:

I and my family are direct descendants of King David, true royal blood, the same blood of the Messiah flows through my veins. It is my heritage and I proclaim it in the name of the King of Israel. In the name of my people, the people of Israel, the chosen ones of God, I declare them innocent and blameless of all crimes declared in this abominable edict of expulsion. The crime and transgression are for you, not for us to bear the decree without justice that you have proclaimed today; it will be your downfall, and this year that you imagine as one of great glory will be the year of greatest shame for the Spains.

My King and my Queen, hear me well, your error has been your deep and inconceivable error as Spain has never seen before now. You alone are responsible, as weapons of a state power, just as arts and letters provide guidelines for the most refined sensitivity, if you have placated the pride of the Infidel Muslim with the force of your army, giving evidence of the knowledge of the art of war by the internal state of their conscience. By what right do your inquisitors traverse the fields burning books by the thousands in public bonfires? With what authority do the members of the church now wish to burn the immense Arabic library of this great Moorish palace and destroy its precious manuscripts? They do all these excesses by your authority, my King and my Queen.

From the deepest of their hearts, Your Majesties have distrusted the power of knowledge. With us, the Jews, it is different. We Jews admire and encourage knowledge. In our homes and places of worship, learning is a goal and we practice it throughout life. Learning is our passion that lasts a lifetime. It is the heart of our being, it is the reason for our agreement with our beliefs for which we have been created. Our intense love of learning could have balanced your excessive love of power. We could have benefited from the protection offered by our royal arms, and you could have benefited from our advances throughout our community and the exchange of knowledge, and so we could have benefited from each other.

Just as we have been reminded of our lack of power so that your nation will suffer from the forces of an imbalance to which your Majesty has started. For future centuries, your descendants will pay for their huge mistakes in the present. Your Majesties will verify and the nation will transform into a nation of conquerors looking for gold and wealth living back and with steel fists. At the same time, you will become a nation of illiterates, your institutions of knowledge, intimidated by the heretical continuation of strange ideas and of other lands and other people, will not be respected. Over time, the so admired name of Spain will become a whisper among the nations of the world. Your Spain has always been poor and ignorant, Spain the nation that presented so many promises and hopes and that has fulfilled so few and then Spain will ask itself: What have I done, what has happened to us? Why are we the laughingstock among the nations of the world? And the Spaniards of that time will look to their past and know why this has happened and those who will be honest will point to this day and this time, which is when all this began and as a cause of its decline will not show more than their Majesties, the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabel, conquerors of the Moors, expellers of the Jews, founders of the inquisition, but destroyers of the illustrious minds of the Spaniards.

This edict is a witness to the weakness of the Christian faith. This is proving once again that the Jews are beating the centuries. Old argument about these two beliefs … This explains why there are false Christians: Christians whose beliefs have been shaken by arguments that the Jew knows better.

After today, this is the last opportunity to discuss this issue on Spanish soil. In these last times of freedom granted by the King and Queen and I as a representative of all Spanish Jewry will rest on a point of theological dispute. I will leave it with a message of departure even though your Majesties do not like it. The message is very simple. The historic people of Israel, as characterized by their traditions, are the only ones who can issue their judgment on Jesus and his demands to be the Messiah and if as Messiah, save Israel. So it must come from Israel how and when it should be saved. Our answer is the only answer that matters. Also in the case that if Jesus were a false Messiah. As long as the people of Israel exist, as long as the people of Jesus continue to reject it, their religion cannot be validated as true. Your Majesties can convert all peoples, all the savages of the world, but until you convert the Jews, Your Majesties will have proved nothing, except that you can only persuade with force those who are uninformed.

We leave you with this comforting knowledge. Your Majesties may have their powers, we possess the truth from above. Your Majesties may kill many Jewish individuals, but you will never be able to deprive us of our sacred souls nor of the historical truth which is our only witness.

Listen, King and Queen of Spain, on this day, Your Majesties have added to the list of the makers of evil against the descendants of the House of Israel. If Your Majesties insist on destroying us, think that you have already failed. However, we, the Jews, will thrive in all the lands far away to where we go. And wherever we go the God of Israel will go with us. To Your Majesties, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel, the hand of God will catch and punish them for the arrogance of their hearts.

Be done only, to Your Majesties, authors of this iniquity for generations of future generations. It will be repeated and told continuously as their faith was not benevolent and as their vision was blinded by more of their acts of hatred and fanaticism. The people of Israel will be remembered for having faced the powerful Spanish empire and we have adhered to the religious inheritances of our fathers, resisting false arguments. Expel us, throw us out of this land that we have loved as much as you. To you we will remember as those who appear in our holy books as those who sought our evils, us, the Jews, with your deeds in the pages of history and of the memories of our sufferings and you will incur greater damage to your men much more than the harm that you have caused us.

We will remember you alongside your vile edict of expulsion, for the centuries of the centuries.”

Notes of interest:

• Rabbi Abraham Senior converted to Christianity two months later in Segovia under the names of Fernando Pérez Coronel or Fernando Nuñez Coronel, being the founder of the surname and lineage Coronel. One of his sons, Pedro Fernandez Coronel, was a member of Columbus’s expedition and appointed by him as Marshal of the Indies.
• Isaac Abravanel refused to convert, fleeing from the persecutions against the Jews that grew throughout Europe and North Africa, first exiled in Naples, then in Sicily, in Corfu, and finally in Venice where he died.